Geology Volcanoes&Earthquake Assignment2 Assignment

Geology Volcanoes&Earthquake Assignment2 - Assignment Example "Back from the Dead" depicts the magnitude of damage that a volcanic activity can cause. The movie shows the eruption of Mt. St. Helens as one of the most catastrophic events that occurred in the United States. Both movies give viewers first-hand evidence that volcanic activity can cause economic and human loss. Various things such as disruptions lead to the eruption of hot magma and lava. But those are not the major lessons learnt. People who knew the background of Mt St. Helens were shocked by the events that followed. The events that take place, as shown by both movies, reveal that mountains that occur through volcanic means can reoccur. What is interesting is that a resurgence of plant and animal life invoked the mountain out of its dormancy. Additionally, the movie increase insight regarding causes of environmental and geological shifts, forces that spur eruptions. If geologists and people in general can gain better understanding of factors behind shifts, they prediction of futu re eruptions can become easy (Dale, Swanson, and Crisafulli, 7). Fire Mountain, on the other hand, presents a firsthand experience of one of the biggest natural catastrophes to have occurred that resulted in more 540 million tons of rock and ash being thrown out into the sky. The movie is talking about the same event as Back from the Dead is, but the details and accounts presented in this movie are different from the first one. The video, packed with evolutionary partiality, does not categorically mention how the ecological or geological features came about by the Mt. St. Helens’ eruption in 1980 parallel the creationist explanations more than the evolutionary theory. However, it gives a good account of what happened, especially with its interviews with survivors, and the viewer can easily draw apparent conclusions. This movie shows how seemingly old, stratified rock can form by

Changes to womens lifes in inter-war Britain Essay

Changes to womens lifes in inter-war Britain - Essay Example These changes contributed immensely to the attainment of equal rights with men. The purpose of this paper is to explore the changes in women’s lives during the interwar period in Britain. More specifically, the paper will examine the changes in women’s lives with regard to health, work, and politics. In the interwar period, women’s lives in Britain improved, especially in the realms of work, health, and politics. Women suffrage movements gained momentum, and their popularity gained widespread recognition throughout Britain. Consequently, women oppression declined considerably as women sought equal representation in the various aspects of their daily life (Laybourn 1999, p.114). One of the areas in which women made remarkable progress was in the field of employment. Unlike the years before the war, the interwar period saw women work issues addressed with numerous efforts being put in place to ensure that employment rights of women in Britain were looked into with a lot of keenness (Constantine 1983, p.33). From 1918 to 1939, the number of British working in industries rose significantly. In 1914, the number of women employed in British industries and other casual occupations was only 2000; by 1920, the number stood at 247, 000. The increase in the number of working women in Britain led to an increment in the real wages; this had an impact on household incomes, which increased considerably. Consequently, the status of women improved as they had the ability to provide for themselves and not necessarily depend on their husbands. The industrial position of women experienced some revolution as a result of the war. Women got an opportunity to work in the paid labour market, where they could be fairly remunerated for the work they did. British women gained profound freedom during the interwar period. They formed trade unions and lobby groups, which advocated for their rights at the workplace and their recognition as crucial players in economic deve lopment (Eichengreen 1988, p. 149). The formation of trade unions was mostly precipitated by the efforts of the League and Guild women. Some of the most influential trade unions formed during this period included the National Federation of Women Workers (NFWW), the Railway Women’s Guild (RWG) and Women’s Trade Union League (WTUL). The number of women working in the civil service also increased significantly. In 1911, the number of British women in the workplace used to be 33, 000, but this number had increased to 102, 000 in 1921. British women had an opportunity to advocate for their rights in the workplace through the introduction of "Sex Disqualification Removal Act, in 1919. This act gave women a chance to enter certain professions, which were previously preserved for men. In addition, about two million British women replaced men in employment positions. From July 1914 to December 1918, the total number of employed women in Britain increased from 24 percent to 37 p ercent. Working conditions of women in Britain also improved considerably during the interwar period (Constantine 1983, p.34). The enactment of the Industrial Courts Act of 1919 also heightened trade union activities during the interwar period (Eichengreen 1988, p.151). Between 1918 and 1930, Britain witnessed the passing of about 23 legislations, which aimed at according women equal rights with men. The influx of women in

Promissory estoppel is now a mature doctrine

Promissory estoppel is now a mature doctrine â€Å"Promissory estoppel is now a mature doctrine. Its role is to mitigate some of the harshness of the doctrine of consideration by protecting those who reasonably rely on promises. Its full potential can only be reached if the court permits its use not merely as a shield, but as a sword, where appropriate. The decision of the Court of Appeal in Baird Textile Holdings Ltd v Marks and Spencer plc [2001] therefore represents a missed opportunity to clarify and modernise the law. Promissory estoppel is an important tool in equity to create fairness within contract law. It deals specifically with consideration, which as a doctrine holds the parties that have entered into a contract to which they both intend to be bound. Therefore the parties must have the capacity to be bound to the contract; as well as the intention to be bound by the contract. There must be a value to amount to consideration, which does not necessarily have to be monetary[1]. Consideration can be a right, interest, service, benefit to one party and sufficient detriment to the other party. [2] Consideration does not have to be equal on both sides; one party may only leave a nominal amount of consideration[3] As long as there is sufficient intention and the terms are not vague then the law will not get involved in business dealings; therefore the courts will infer intention[4]; as long as the consideration for that particular business dealing illustrates that there is sufficient consideration. [5] Insufficient consideration is any act where the duty is already imposed by law or a valid contractual duty. However, there are exceptions to the rules, because consideration at times can be deemed as far too harsh. The case of Williams v Roffey Bros[6] held that consideration could be inferred in a pre-existing contractual duty if there was further consideration that could be inferred. For example this case recognized that the contractor would be subject to a significant late charge, if he did not re-negotiate his contract with the subcontractor to finish on time. Therefore the renegotiation of the pre-existing duty saved the contractor a loss of money, which the courts held as sufficient consideration. However, in the case of paying a partial debt there can never be consideration. The rule in Pinnel’s Case[7] was confirmed in the case of Foakes v Beer[8] where it was held that part payment of a debt could be held as consideration because there was an existing contractual duty. The rule in Pinnel’s Case is that promissory estoppel is an invalid action when it comes to the part payment of debt, unless it is paid in full and benefits both parties. The reasoning behind this is that p art payment of debt is inequitable because the person who is supposed to benefit from the consideration is put at a detriment and therefore defeats on of the central tenants of consideration, which one party is at a sufficient benefit whilst the other party is at a sufficient detriment. There are circumstances where promissory estoppel is possible in regards to a reduced payment of a price or fee. The case of Central London Property Trust v High Trees House Ltd[9] is such a case, because the political and social environment was drastically changed. The two parties where a property owner and a business tenant, who then leased the property as flats to other individuals residentially. An agreed business tenancy price came into question during WWII, because of the bombings in London the situation made it impossible for the renter to pay the whole rent due to the bombing and lack of tenants. Here equity stepped and promissory estoppel was used, because it would be unfair to make the rent er pay the whole rental amount due to the circumstances. In addition the agreement by the property owner to accept less due to the WWII inferred intention, because otherwise the landlord would receive no rent because the renter would have vacated the premises; and no other businesses would have taken up the tenancy during the war. This is a very specific scenario, where WWII could have amounted to frustration of the contract, because the war would have made it impossible for the renter to satisfy the contract and an act of war is outside his ambit of control. After the High Trees case the courts extended the doctrine of promissory estoppel in the case partial full partial payment of a debt; however if it were revealed that the re-negotiation was due was an action of duress that forced the creditor to agree to the new credit agreement then equity could not step in with the doctrine of promissory estoppel. One such case that illustrates that equity will only aid those with clean hands is the case of D C Builders v Rees[10] where Rees discerned that the building company was in financial distress and tried to use this to her advantage by offering a smaller payment in full or nothing. This amounted to duress, because the knowledge that Rees had of the problems that D C Builders were facing was used as a sword against a fair and equitable outcome. The key factor that surrounds the doctrine of Promissory Estoppel is that it originates out of equity and aims to create a just outcome, as in the High Trees Case. In the case of D C Builders the use of Promissory Estoppel was for unjust purposes and equity could not aid Rees, because an injustice would occur. High Trees is the case that the modern doctrine of Promissory Estoppel has developed from; however it was the Hughes Case that the doctrine originated from, where a landlord’s actions gave the tenant contrary belief in the events surrounding a notice to repair. Tool Metal Manufacturing Co Ltd v Tungsten Electric Co Ltd[11] case allows for suspension of payment to be reverted back to active payment as long as reasonable notice is given. This also means with the reasonable notice that the creditor can also receive compensation for the suspended payments; therefore ensuring that there is not a case of part payment of debt, because the interest can keep running. The only exception to this is an agreement of an early settlement, with a lump sum that is considered reasonable by both parties. The Tool Metal Case and the Hughes Case point to the doctrine of promissory estoppel being a shield and not a sword of equitable justice, because it believes that consideration plays an essential part of contract law. To eradicate the harshness of consideration may allow individual like Rees in the D C Builders Case to use Promissory Estoppel for unfair and unjust purposes. However, the High Trees Case that is the key case for the modern doctrine of Promissory Estoppel seems to be pointing in a different direction, i.e. that the doctrine is a sword against the harshness of consideration. In this case WWII made it impossible for the original contract to be kept to, hence the parties re-negotiated during this period. The case of Coombe v Coombe[12] argued that the doctrine in High Trees could not be identified as a sword against the doctrine of consideration; rather it can only be used as a defense to an action and in the interests of justice. The cases of Re Wyven Developments[13] an d Evenden v Guildford City AFC[14] argued that Coombe v Coombe was incorrect and that the doctrine of Promissory Estoppel could be used as a sword; as well as a shield if justice and equity dictated. The Coombe approach makes sense by ensuring that the rules surrounding contract law are upheld and ensuring that certainty in contracts remain; otherwise there would be a mass confusion where courts could get too involved in business contracts. English law is based on a laissez faire system, where business dealings should be free from the ministrations of parliament and the courts; as long as just and both parties were capable to enter the contract. As Mitchell argues, parties enter a contract with specific expectations and to turn these upside down would be a breach a fundamental principle of contract law: While we could dismiss this as assimilating reasonable expectation with contractual rights, and therefore making the appeal to reasonable expectation redundant, it is clear that many appeals to reasonable expectation rely upon an institutional or contract law-based source for such expectations. Reiter and Swan, for example, write that '[t]he assumption is that the fundamental purpose of contract law is the protection and promotion of expectations reasonably created by contract'. If 'contract' here is taken in a legal, rather than a social sense, then the utility of reasonable expectations as a counter-contractual reference point is in danger of disappearing.[15] Therefore in the light of the essential principles of contract law and the doctrine of consideration the decision of Baird v MS[16] would have been the correct decision, otherwise there would be a free for all for parties to argue that the contract is unjust and flagrant actions of Promissory Estoppel would occur. However, Promissory Estoppel would still remain as a defense in cases where the situation dictated that there would be an unjust outcome if the contract was upheld in its present form. The case of Baird v M S, Baird used Promissory Estoppel as an action to enforce what Baird classed as an unwritten contract. In other words Baird was arguing that the long term relationship between the two created a reasonable expectation that there was an ongoing business relationship, which could only be altered or terminated with reasonable notice; as per the Tool Metal Case. The Court of Appeal however decided against this approach, because the reason that M S did not enter a written co ntractual agreement was for flexibility and the option of changing suppliers if market forces dictated this route. Also the Court of Appeal stated that the lack of a (legal) contract was determinative for the court. The estoppel claim was also thought likely to fail, since estoppel cannot be used to create a cause of action. It was remarked that, despite the close relationship between the parties, 'businessmen must be taken to be aware that, without specific contractual protection, their business may suffer in consequence.[17] However, this argument seems to be very one-sided, because as with the High Trees Case the situation in Baird v M S does indicate that there was intention to create some form of business and contractual relationship that benefited both parties. In fact the long history of Baird supplying the goods could be inferred as terms and conditions of the contract; however the lack of a written contract seems to be an excuse for the Court of Appeal to open up Prom issory Estoppel as an action; as opposed to just a defense. Therefore, as Mitchell argues the decision in Baird v M S could be taken either way because both sides were arguing certainty of contracts and reasonable expectation; however the determining factor not to find a contract was because of public policy reasons NOT to make Promissory Estoppel a cause of action (a Sword) and open the floodgates to further actions: One can see how a 'reasonable expectations' argument can be used to support Baird or M S, but each relies on a different basis for the reasonable expectation. Baird will have non-contractual reasonable expectations concerning the parties' mutual obligations, based upon their experience of the previous thirty years. M S, on the other hand, have reasonable expectations based on their strict legal rights, and supported in the judgement, that there is no contract and hence the relationship can be terminated at will-an institutional interpretation of reasonable expectation†¦ This result does not support the attempt to make contract law more sensitive to the social dimension of agreement-making, but undermines it by privileging the legal framework in the resolution of the dispute.[18] Bibliography: J. Beatson (2002) Anson’s Law of Contract 28th Edition, Oxford University Press Hooley (1991) Consideration and Existing Duty JBL 19-35 David Kelly, Ann Holmes Ruth Hayward (2002) Business Law 4th Edition, Cavendish Ewan McIntyre, (2004) Business Law, Longman McKendrick, 2005, Contract law, text, cases and materials, second edition, Oxford University Press Mitchell, 2003, Leading a Life of its own? The Roles of Reasonable Expectation in Contract Law, OJLS 23 639 Stallworthy (1994) Case Comment: Variation of Contracts, ICCR 5(7) Chris Turner (2004) Unlocking Contract Law, Hodder Arnold Footnotes [1] Currie v Misa (1875) LR 10 Ex 15 [2] Combe v Combe (1951) 2 KB 215 [3] Chappell Co Ltd v Nestle Co Ltd (1960) AC 87; Mountford v Scott (1975) [4] White v Bluett (1853) 23 LJ Ex 36 [5] Collins v Godefroy (1831) 109 ER 1040 [6] [1991] 1 QB 1 [7] (1602) 5 Co Rep 117a [8] (1884) 9 App Cas 605 [9] [1947] KB 130 [10] [1966] 2 KB 617 [11] [1955] 1 WLR 761 [12] [1951] 2 KB 215 [13] [1974] 1 WLR 1097 [14] [1975] QB 917 [15] Mitchell, 2003, Leading a Life of its own? The Roles of Reasonable Expectation in Contract Law, OJLS 23 639 [16] [2001] unreported [17] Mitchell, 2003, Leading a Life of its own? The Roles of Reasonable Expectation in Contract Law, OJLS 23 639 [18] Mitchell, 2003, Leading a Life of its own? The Roles of Reasonable Expectation in Contract Law, OJLS 23 639

Graduation Speech: I Will Miss You All! :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

It's only been two years here, and I have grown to love this school. It's funny because when my dad told me about Tates Creek High School (TC) I begged him not to make me go there. It just didn't sound interesting. I felt like I wouldn't belong and I figured that I wouldn't get along with any of the teachers, but boy was I wrong! I never thought that TC would have changed me, and get my life back on track. First of all, everyone is always complaining about the uniforms, but I love them! All I have to do is throw it on in the morning. I don't even have to make them match or anything. One day I got up a few minutes before school stared, but since I didn't have to pick out my clothes I was still on time. It's so easy, no one is judging you because they have the exact same thing on. Now, to the teachers. What could I do without them? I remember one time during the year I had some family issues. The teachers could see that in my work and in the way I was acting, something was wrong with me. So basically every teacher talked to me to see what was going on and helped me to raise my grades back up. That is why it's so great to have that one on one attention. All the teachers, also make class endurable, and entertaining. They make it more fun to learn and put it in a way that makes me want to learn. They also are always going out of their way for me. I can't think of a time I have asked a teacher to help me with something or go over something and they have said "no I'm busy or "no I can't." It's always "sure, when?" I never would have guesssed that an acronym could change me, but it has. That acronym is C.R.I.S.P. C.R.I.S.P. inspired me to be a better person. Its great having that writeen everywhere and seeing it every day. I actually try to be a citizen, and try to respect and try to show initiative, and well you guys no where I'm going with this. I am just grateful for having something that inspiring 24/7. I never thought that I would say this, but I am happy how strict the school is.

Geology Study Guide Essay

Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1) What are the basic differences between the disciplines of physical and historical geology?|1)| A)physical geology is the study of fossils and sequences of rock strata; historical geology is the study of how rocks and minerals were used in the past B)physical geology involves the study of rock strata, fossils, and deposition in relation to plate movements in the geologic past; historical geology charts how and where the plates were moving in the past C)historical geology involves the study of rock strata, fossils, and geologic events, utilizing the geologic time scale as a reference; physical geology includes the study of how rocks form and of how erosion shapes the land surface D)none of the above – physical geology and historical geology are essentially the same 2)|________ was the highly influential, ancient Greek philosopher noted for his writings and teachings|2)| |on natural philosophy and on the workings of Earth.|||| |A) Pappagapolis|B) Aristotle|C) Nero|D) Odysseus|| 3)|Compared to the age of Earth accepted as correct today, how did 17th and 18th century proponents|3)| |of catastrophism envision the Earth’s age?|||| A) They believed it to be about the same as current estimates, give or take a few million years. B)They believed Earth to be much younger than current estimates C)They believed Earth to be much older than current estimates D)None of the above — they didn’t really address the age of Earth 4) Which one of the following observations and inferences is consistent with the idea of|4)| uniformitarianism?|| A) lava flows on the seafloor precipitated from seawater B)sand rolling along a stream bottom shows that sediment is moving downstream C)erupting volcanoes overlie burning, subterranean, coal beds D)all of the above 5)|________ was an important 18th century English geologist and proponent of uniformitarianism.|5)| |A) Isaac Newton|B) James Hutton|C) Charles Lyell|D) James Ussher|| 6)|The currently accepted age of Earth is ________ years.|||6)| |A) 4.6 billion|B) 6.4 million|C) 6.4 trillion|D) 4.6 thousand|| 7)|Which of the following best describes the fundamental concept of superposition?|7)| A) older fossils in younger strata indicate a locally inverted geologic time scale B)any sedimentary deposit accumulates on older rock or sediment layers C)strata with fossils are generally deposited on strata with no fossils D)older strata generally are deposited on younger strata without intervening, intermediate age strata 8)|The ________ division of the geologic time scale is an era of the Phanerozoic eon.|8)| |A) Paleozoic|B) Permian|C) Proterozoic|D) Paleocene|| 9)|The ________ forms the relatively cool, brittle plates of plate tectonics.||9)| |A) asthenosphere|B) eosphere|C) astrosphere|D) lithosphere|| 1 10)|A ________ is a well-tested and widely accepted view that best explains certain scientific|10)| |observations.||||| |A) generalization|B) law|C) hypothesis|D) theory|| 11)|All of the following are possible steps of scientific investigation except for ________.|11)| A) the development of one or more working hypotheses or models to explain facts B)development of observations and experiments to test the hypotheses C)assumption of conclusions without prior experimentation or observation D)the collection of scientific facts through observation and measurement 12)|________ rocks form by crystallization and consolidation of molten magma.||12)| |A) Indigenous|B) Primary|C) Igneous|D) Sedimentary|| 13)|________ rocks always originate at the surface of the solid Earth.||13)| |A) Secondary|B) Sedimentary|C) Metamorphic|D) Igneous|| 14)|During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, direct observations showed that a glacier|14)| |in Switzerland flowed forward in the downhill direction while its snout (terminus) was retreating|| |higher up the valley? Which of the following explains these observations in a rational, scientific|| |way?||||| A) cooler temperatures meant slower forward glacier flow resulting in snout retreat B)the glacial hypothesis was finally accepted as a scientific theory C)the melting rate of ice in the glacier exceeded the rate at which new snow and ice were added to the glacier D)rocky debris in the valley downhill from the snout was deposited by Noah’s flood 15)|In correct order from the center outward, Earth includes which units?||15)| |A) core, crust, mantle, hydrosphere|B) inner core, outer core, mantle, crust|| |C) inner core, crust, mantle, hydrosphere|D) core, inner mantle, outer mantle, crust|| 16)|The ________ refers to the sum total of all life on Earth.||16)| |A) biosphere|B) atmosphere|C) hydrosphere|D) asthenosphere|| 17)|A ________ system is one in which energy moves freely in and out, but no matter enters or leaves|17)| |the system.||||| |A) equilibrated|B) feedback|C) closed|D) open|| 18)|________ is often paraphrased as â€Å"the present is the key to the past.†||18)| |A) Aristotelian logic||B) Biblical prophecy||| |C) Catastrophism||D) Uniformitarianism||| 19)|________, a popular natural philosophy of the 17th and early 18th centuries, was based on a firm|19)| |belief in a very short geologic history for Earth.|||| |A) Exoschism||B) Uniformitarianism||| |C) Ecospherism||D) Catastrophism||| 20)|The ________ proposes that the bodies of our solar system formed at essentially the same time from|20)| |a rotating cloud of gases and dust.|||| |A) Big Band theory||B) Heliocentric theory||| |C) Nebular hypothesis||D) Plate Tectonics theory||| 2 21)|The ________ is not a part of the Earth’s physical environment.||21)| |A) solid Earth|B) atmosphere|C) hydrosphere|D) astrosphere|| 22)|________ is the process by which rocks breakdown in place to produce soils and sediments.|22)| |A) Lithification|B) Metamorphism|C) Weathering|D) Subduction|| 23)|Which one of the following statements is not correct?|||23)| A) magmas crystallize to form igneous rocks B)sedimentary rocks may weather to igneous rocks C)igneous rocks can undergo metamorphism D)metamorphic rocks may melt to magma 24)|The composition of the core of Earth is thought to be ________.||24)| |A) peridotite||B) granite||| |C) basalt||D) solid iron-nickel alloy||| 25)|The asthenosphere is actually a part of the ________ of the Earth.||25)| |A) mantle|B) outer core|C) inner core|D) crust|| 26)|The ________ is thought to be a liquid, metallic region in the Earth’s interior.||26)| |A) inner core|B) lithosphere|C) outer core|D) mantle|| 27)|The ________ is the thinnest layer of the Earth.|||27)| |A) mantle|B) outer core|C) inner core|D) crust|| 28)|All of the following provide evidence or clues to the composition of Earth’s interior except for|28)| |________.||||| A) slivers of crustal and mantle rocks now exposed at Earth’s surface B)diamond-bearing rocks C)comets D)meteorites 29)|The relatively stable interior portion of a continent is known as a ________.|29)| |A) shield|B) craton|C) belt|D) platform| 30)|Active mountain belts are most likely to be found ________.|30)| A) along only the eastern margins of continents B)scattered throughout continents C)along the margins of continents D)in the interior regions of continents 31) The continental shelf is located ________.|31)| A) between the continental rise and the abyssal plains B)landward of the continental slope C)between the continental slope and continental rise D)seaward of the continental slope 32) The most prominent feature on the ocean floor are the ________.|32)| A) deep-ocean trenches|B) seamounts|| C) oceanic ridges|D) lava plateaus|| 3 33) In sedimentary rocks, lithification includes ________.33) A) crystallization and coolingB) cementation and weathering C) compaction and cementationD) compaction and transportation SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or answers the question. Word Analysis. Examine the words and/or phrases for each question below and determine the relationship among the majority of words/phrases. Choose the option which does not fit the pattern. 34) a. hypothesis|b. theory|c. fact|d. observation|34)| 35) a. hydrosphere|b. biosphere|c. atmosphere|d. solid Earth|35)| 36) a. protosun|b. Oort cloud|c. protoplanets|d. meteorites|36)| 37) a. crust|b. mantle|c. lithosphere|d. core|37)| 38) a. mountain belt|b. shield|c. craton|d. stable platform|38)| 39) a. abyssal plain|b. seamount|c. oceanic ridge|d. continental slope|39)| 40) a. pressure|b. foliation|c. hydrothermal fluids|d. melting|40)| TRUE/FALSE. Write ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if the statement is false. 41)|Aristotle and other prominent Greek philosophers were the first ones to promote the doctrine of|41)| |uniformitarianism. F|| 42)|Internally, the Earth consists of spherical shells with different compositions and densities. T|42)| 43)|The asthenosphere is a relatively cool and rigid shell that overlies the lithosphere. F|43)| 44)|The doctrine of uniformitarianism implies that the current forces and processes shaping the Earth|44)| |have been operating for a very long time. T|| 45)|The law of superposition applies primarily to sedimentary rocks and lava flows. T|45)| 46)|The currently accepted age of Earth is approximately 4.5 million years. F|46)| 47)|A scientific theory is a tentative or untested explanation that is proposed to explain scientific|47)| |observations. F|| 48)|Oceans cover slightly less than half of the Earth’s surface. F|48)| 49)|In an open system both energy and matter flow into and out of the system. T|49)| 50)|According to the nebular hypothesis, all of the bodies in the universe evolved from a rotating cloud|50)| |of gases and dust about 5 billion years ago. F|| 4 51)The lithosphere, asthenosphere, and mesosphere are all layers of Earth defined by their composition. T 52)Much of our modeling of Earth’s interior comes from the study of seismic or earthquake waves. T 53)Continental shields and stable platforms are part of the interior region known as a craton. T 54)According to the rock cycle, any type of rock (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic) may be transformed into another type of rock, given enough time. T 55)Igneous rocks are produced largely by the deposition and consolidation of surface materials like sand and mud. F SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or answers the question. 56)|List the two, broad, traditional subject areas of geologic study. Physical, Historical|56)| 57)|The statement â€Å"the present is the key to the past,† describes what basic geologic concept or|57)| |doctrine? Uniformitarianism|| 58)|The ________ states that fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and|58)| |determinable order. Principle of fossil succession|| 59)|In natural systems, mechanisms that drive or enhance change are called†¦Positive feedback|59)| 60)|The thin, outer layer of Earth, from 7 to 40 km in thickness, is called the Crust|60)| 61)|The ________ is the relatively rigid zone above the asthenosphere that includes the crust|61)| |and upper mantle. Lithosphere|| 62)|The ________ is the solid, rocky shell between the crust and outer core. Mantle|62)| 63)|The convective flow of liquid, metallic iron in the ________ is thought to generate Earth’s|63)| |magnetic field. Outer core|| 64)|Moving from the shoreline towards the deep-ocean basin, the continental margin may|64)| |include the continental shelf________, _slope_______, and the ___rise_____.|| 65)|What type of rock comprises most of the exposed surface of Earth (roughly 75%)?Sedimentary| 65)|    MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question. 66) Which of the following best defines a mineral and a rock?|66)| A)a mineral consists of its constituent atoms arranged in a geometrically repetitive structure; in a rock, the atoms are randomly bonded without any geometric pattern B)a rock consists of atoms bonded in a regular, geometrically predictable arrangement; a mineral is a consolidated aggregate of different rock particles C)in a mineral the constituent atoms are bonded in a regular, repetitive, internal structure; a rock is a lithified or consolidated aggregate of different mineral grains D)a rock has an orderly, repetitive, geometrical, internal arrangement of minerals; a mineral is a lithified or consolidated aggregate of rocks 67)|Which of the following is not a fundamental particle found in atoms?||67)| |A) neutron|B) protons|C) electron|D) selectron|| 68)|Atoms of the same element, zinc for example, have the same number of ________.|68)| |A) electrons in the valence bond level|B) electrons in the nucleus|| |C) protons in the nucleus||D) neutrons in the outer nuclear shell|| 69)|Which of the following is an accurate description of ionic bonding?||69)| A)nuclei of bonding atoms exchange electrons; the resulting ions are bonded together by the attractive forces between the negative and positive nucleons B)atoms of different elements, having gained or lost electrons, form negative and positive ions that are bonded together by attractive forces between ions with opposite charges C)atoms of two different elements share electrons and protons; the resulting compound is bonded together by the strong, binding energy of shared protons D)nuclei of two different atoms share electrons, and the resulting compound is tightly bonded by the very strong, induced, electronuclear bonds 70) Which of the following is correct for isotopes of the same element?|70)| A) the atoms have different numbers of neutrons and the same number of protons B)the atoms have different numbers of electrons but the same number of neutrons C)the atoms have the same number of electrons and different numbers of protons D)the atoms have different numbers of protons and the same number of neutrons 71)|What mineral is the hardest known substance in nature?||71)| |A) muscovite|B) silicate|C) diamond|D) native gold|| 72)|Which carbonate mineral reacts readily with cool, dilute hydrochloric acid to produce visible|72)| |bubbles of carbon dioxide gas?|||| |A) calcite|B) dolomite|C) quartz|D) plagioclase|| 73)|Which mineral is composed of silicon dioxide (Si02)?|||73)| |A) diamond|B) quartz|C) olivine|D) calcite|| 74)|Which of the following minerals is a silicate?|||74)| |A) calcite|B) halite|C) hematite|D) muscovite|| 6 75)|A cubic centimeter of quartz, olivine, and gold weigh 2.5, 3.0, and 19.8 grams respectively. This|75)| |indicates that ________.||||| |A) gold is 6 to 7 times harder than olivine and quartz||| |B) gold has a higher density and specific gravity than quartz and olivine||| |C) olivine and quartz powders are harder than metallic gold||| |D) gold and olivine are silicates, quartz is elemental silicon||| 76)|Which one of the following is a sodium and calcium feldspar with twinning striations?|76)| |A) microcline|B) orthoclase|C) plagioclase|D) sanidine|| 77)|Which of the following minerals is a ferromagnesian silicate?||77)| |A) muscovite|B) quartz|C) hornblende|D) orthoclase|| 78)|Which of the following minerals is in the mineral group known as mica?||78)| |A) augite|B) muscovite|C) olivine|D) orthoclase|| 79)|Which of the following best characterizes ferromagnesian silicates?||79)| A) they contain magnetite and ferroite and they are clear to light green B)they are mostly clear, colorless, and rich in the elements magnesium and ferrium C)they are black to dark-green, silicate minerals containing iron and magnesium D)they contain iron and magnetite, are black in color, and they have metallic lusters 80)|Which one of the following mineral groups exhibits a sheet-like silicate structure?|80)| |A) clays|B) feldspars|C) carbonates|D) pyroxenes|| 81)|Which one of the following is a typical product of weathering?||81)| |A) clays||B) feldspars||| |C) micasmicas||D) ferromagnesians||| 82)|The ion at the center of a silicate tetrahedron is surrounded by ________.||82)| |A) 4 oxygen ions|B) 4 sodium ions|C) 6 oxygen ions|D) 6 sodium ions|| 83)|Which one of the following describes a mineral’s response to mechanical impact?|83)| |A) crystal form|B) luster|C) streak|D) cleavage|| 84)|Chrysotile, crocidolite, and amosite are different mineralogical forms of what industrial|84)| |commodity?||||| |A) Portland cement||B) gemstones||| |C) asbestos||D) metallic sulfide ores||| 85)|Which of the following diseases has been linked directly to prolonged inhalation of asbestos dust?|85)| |A) diabetes||B) lung cancer||| |C) glaucoma||D) muscular dystrophy||| 86)|Which of the following is the unit of weight used for measuring diamonds (about 0.2 grams)?|86)| |A) carat|B) Troy ounce|C) kilo|D) point|| 87)|Which of the following denotes the purity of gold used in jewelry?||87)| |A) carette|B) carlot|C) carnot|D) karat|| 7 88)|Ruby and sapphire are red and blue forms of the mineral ________.||88)| |A) diamond|B) corundum|C) emerald|D) turquoise|| 89)|All silicate minerals contain which two elements?|||89)| |A) iron, silicon|B) silicon, oxygen|C) oxygen, carbon|D) silicon, sodium|| 90)|Which mineral is easily soluble in water at room temperature conditions?||90)| |A) halite|B) diamond|C) talc|D) olivine|| 91)|What element is the most abundant in the Earth’s crust by weight?||91)| |A) chlorine|B) carbon|C) oxygen|D) sodium|| 92)|The strong tendency of certain minerals to break along smooth, parallel planes is known as|92)| |________.||||| |A) cracking luster|B) cleavage|C) crystal form|D) streak|| 93)|What in the name given to an atom that gains or loses electrons in a chemical reaction?|93)| |A) isotope|B) ion|C) molecule|D) nucleon|| 94)|An atom’s mass number is 13 and its atomic number is 6. How many neutrons are in its nucleus?|94)| |A) 13|B) 7|C) 6|D) 19|| 95)|Which one of the following is not true for minerals?|||95)| A) they have a specific, predictable chemical composition B)they have a specific, internal, crystalline structure C)they can be a liquid, solid, or glass D)they can be identified by characteristic physical properties 96)|In which type of chemical bonding are electrons shared between adjacent atoms?|96)| |A) isotopic|B) subatomic|C) covalent|D) ionic|| 97)|How do the electrons behave in a mineral with metallic bonding?||97)| A) they are tightly bound to certain atoms and cannot readily move B)they move to adjacent negative ions, forming positive ions C)they react with protons to make neutrons in the outer valence shells D)they can move relatively easily from atom to atom inside the mineral 98)|Which group of minerals are the most abundant in the Earth’s crust?|98)| |A) chlorides|B) silicates|C) carbonates|D) sulfides| 99)|Which the following denotes the massive, positively charged, nuclear particles?|99)| |A) neutrons|B) protons|C) isotrons|D) electrons| 100)|What are the lightest or least massive of the basic atomic particles?|100)| |A) electrons|B) uranium nuclei|C) protons|D) neutrons| 101)|Which of the following has the highest specific gravity?|101)| |A) gold|B) quartz|C) wood|D) water| 8 102)|Which of the following will react readily with acids such as hydrochloric?||102)| |A) calcite|B) diamond|C) talc|D) quartz|| 103)|Which of the following describes the light reflecting and transmission characteristics of a mineral?|103)| |A) fluorescence||B) virtual absorption||| |C) color streak||D) luster||| 104)|What is the name of dark-colored mica?|||104)| |A) biotite|B) quartz|C) calcite|D) olivine|| 105)|Hornblende and the other amphiboles have what type of silicate structure?||105)| |A) sheet||B) double chains||| |C) 3-D framework||D) metallic||| SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or answers the question. Word Analysis. Examine the words and/or phrases for each question below and determine the relationship among the majority of words/phrases. Choose the option which does not fit the pattern. 106) a. electron|b. atom|c. proton|d. neutron|106)| 107) a. hardness|b. streak|c. luster|d. cleavage|107)| 108) a. quartz|b. olivine|c. feldspar|d. calcite|108)| 109) a. olivine|b. quartz|c. amphibole|d. pyroxene|109)| 110) a. galena|b. calcite|c. gypsum|d. halite|110)| TRUE/FALSE. Write ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if the statement is false. 111)Calcite and dolomite are both carbonate minerals. T 112)Graphite and diamond have the same chemical compositions and different crystalline structures. T 113)Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals. T 114)Mineral luster is broadly classified as either being metallic or opaque. F 115)Electrically neutral atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons. T 116)Rock-forming silicate minerals have higher specific gravities than water. T 117)In a silicon-oxygen structural unit, silicon atoms occupy corners of a tetrahedron. F 118)Calcite and halite react with dilute acids to evolve carbon dioxide. F 119)All atoms of the same element have the same atomic number. F 120)Orthoclase and plagioclase feldspars have quite different forms of cleavage. F 121)Diamond and quartz are both minerals composed of a single element. F 122)The micas, biotite and muscovite, both exhibit one direction of cleavage. T 123)Nonmetallic minerals like quartz and gypsum have no industrial uses. F 124)Ferromagnesian silicate minerals contain some magnesium and/or iron. T 125)Positive ions are atoms that have gained electrons during a chemical reaction. F 126)Isotopes of the same element have the same mass number. F SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or answers the question. 127)|Moh’s hardness scale is a relative measure of which physical property of minerals? Hardness|127)| 128)|What physical property denotes the color of a powdered mineral? Streak|128)| 129)|The physical property denoting a mineral’s tendency to crack along parallel, planar|129)| |surfaces is known as what? Cleavage|| 130)|What is the hardest mineral known? Diamond|130)| 131)|What is the chemical composition of graphite and diamond? Carbon|131)| 132)|In atoms, which electrons are involved in chemical bonding? The valence electrons/outer shell|132)| 133)|A compound is a stable chemical substance composed of two or more what? Elements|133)| 134)|What is the dominant form of chemical bonding exhibited by minerals such as native gold,|134)| |native copper and copper-rich sulfides? Metallic|| 135)|What two major characteristics differentiate minerals from natural glasses? highly viscous; cools quickly|135)| 136)|Most glasses and some minerals exhibit a type of fracture characterized by nested and|136)| |curved, crack surfaces. What term describes this property? conchoidal fracture|| 137)|Parallel, straight, linear imperfections visible on the cleavage surfaces of plagioclase|137)| |feldspar are called what? Striations|| 138)|What is the smallest particle of matter that exhibits and defines the distinctive chemical|138)| |characteristics of the individual elements? Atoms|| 139)|What ferromagnesian silicate mineral is named for its green color? Olivine|139)| 140) What mineral group forms by the breakdown and weathering of rock-forming silicate|140)| minerals and are important constituents of soils? Clay|| ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided or on a separate sheet of paper. 141) Label the various parts of an atom in the diagram below. 11

Research: Decision Theory and Pilot Testing

Chapter 4 Terms in Review 1. Some questions are answerable by research and others are not. Using some management problems of your choosing, distinguish between them. When management wants to find out which method of a production process is the most efficient in terms of operational productivity we can use research to provide usable results. When management wants to know if now is a good time to take on debt for equipment upgrades is, research may not be able to provide usable results.Due to the extensive number of variables affecting financing decisions research will likely not be able to assist in this decision. The current market conditions, economy, interest rates, industry competition, and many other items require a type of analysis that research can not provide. 2. Discuss the problems of trading off exploration and pilot testing under tight budgetary constraints. What are the immediate and long-term effects? The text discussed that often pilot testing is not done to both reduce costs and also to reduce the total research time.Not conducting pilot testing can then immediately progress the research process or reduce the total cost of the research but it can possibly have negative long-term effects. By not conducting pilot testing your research results may suffer because the proper information is not being gathered. A pilot test often provides indication of problems with the data gathering process. There may also be an overall increased cost with no additional benefit when no pilot testing has been completed.The pilot test can not only indicate incorrect information be gathered but can also provide some indication as to whether the proper research questions have been asked. When the research questions being asked do not answer the true management questions then the conducted research will be useless. Useless research is a wasted expense. Pilot testing can indicate whether more in-depth research is required thus providing a possible cost reduction or a better justification for proceeding with a higher cost project. 3.A company is experiencing a poor inventory management situation and receives alternative research proposals. Proposal 1 is to use an audit of last year’s transactions as a basis for recommendations. Proposal 2 is to study and recommend changes to the procedures and system used by the materials department. Discuss issues of evaluation in terms of (a) Ex post facto versus prior evaluation, and (b) Evaluation using option analysis and decision theory. Both of these proposals are going to be quite difficult to evaluate.The need of the research will determine which method will be followed. Ex post factor or after-the-fact evaluation will determine the total cost of each proposal after the research studies are completed. This makes it quite difficult to determine whether the research is providing enough benefit to make it worthwhile until after the cost has been incurred. Thus for either of these systems it may be a better decision to proceed with a prior or interim evaluation method.Under this method the research is designed in stages and an ex post facto evaluation is performed at the end of each stage. Then a determination is made deciding if enough benefit has been generated to proceed to the next stage thus allowing management to get results while also controlling cost. Option analysis may also be used to evaluate the two proposed studies. With option analysis the studies are designed in a very explicit manner thus allowing an organization to compare estimated costs (based on prior research approximations) versus an expected benefit.Management will then select one proposal over another depending on the cost benefit ratio and current need. Decision theory allows management to make decisions based on defined criteria. Each criterion consists of a decision rule and a decision variable. The selection process then consists of analysis determining which proposal either increases the decision variable or which follows the decision rule. This information is considered with a choice being determined by the rules and current management need.